Index

ABSTRACT

The use of drug by most girls and women with pregnancy is to terminate such pregnancy without concern about its risk. This study surveyed the risk of drug use among 300 respondents, comprising young girls and unmarried women that were randomly selected using a multistage sampling technique from six Local Government Areas in Akwa Ibom State. Data were collected from the respondents with the use of questionnaire and interview. The data were discussed both descriptively and analytically. Findings show an increasingly high rate of drug use to terminate unexpected and unwanted pregnancy despite the availability of facilities that can effect safe abortion and the prevalence of modern contraception. It also shows that the drug users risk damage of their womb in the process. While the unmarried women in the 30-49 age group have withdrawn patronage of drug and substance use to terminate unexpected and unwanted pregnancy, majority of the young girls (15-29 years of age) still prefer the use of drug especially when such factors as not living with biological parents; and pressure from mother, sister, girlfriend, and boyfriend who would not accept responsibility of the pregnancy are considered. These factors also show significant effects in the test of the regression coefficient. The study suggests among others the intensification of campaign on sexual education among the vulnerable population to help check the menace.

Keywords: Drug use, Risks, Women, Pregnancy, Termination, Childbirth.

DOI: 10.20448/801.42.302.315

Citation | Ben, Victor Effiong (2019). Evaluation of Drug Use and its Risks among Young Girls and Unmarried Women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(2): 302-315.

Copyright: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Funding : This study received no specific financial support.

Competing Interests:The author declares that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this paper.

History : Received: 30 May 2019 / Revised: 4 July 2019 / Accepted: 9 August 2019 / Published: 17 September 2019.

Publisher: Online Science Publishing

1. INTRODUCTION

Drug abuse and its related complications are one of the most important public health problems in many parts of the world (Montazerifar et al., 2013; Nakamura, 2016). In Nigeria health problem associated with drug use and abuse is severe and well documented in several academic literatures but without a pragmatic step to nip it in the bud. This experience varies widely in such country like Japan where government-led implementation of comprehensive measures against drug use and abuse has made drug related problem become less serious compared to the past and to the situation in many other countries (Nakamura, 2016). A critical assessment of the situation about drugs in Nigeria reveals stark realities at polar ends. At one end, drug is available and sold everywhere, in kiosks or bars, shops and by vendors mostly in suburbs and in the rural areas. The sales of drug is carried out by people of all ages and sexes, and consumed by adult especially persons of low economic status, adolescent children of both the rich and poor, and the security personnel. At another end is the official policy on drug control that is strictly enforced by the Drug Law Enforcement Agency with a target to eliminate the growing, processing, manufacturing, selling, exporting, and trafficking of hard drugs and abuse (Kalau, 2015). However, despite the existence of the prohibiting laws and the efforts of the Enforcement Agency, the distribution, use and abuse of drug is still a prevailing problem in Nigeria. Statistics (World Drugs Report, 2014) show that globally an estimated 230 million people in different regions are involved in the notorious business of narcotics and consumption of the poison in different available forms every year. Nigeria being the most populous country in Africa with estimated 170 million people is considered the center for most narcotics traffic in Africa as well as being the source and route of drugs to many countries of the world.

The National Drug Law Enforcement Agency has reported that between 2012 and 2015 more than 34,499 persons were arrested in connection with drug related offences across the country whereas between January and June 2017, the agency has seized a total of 370, 399.6 kilograms of prohibited drugs. Although reported data appear contradictory for many states in the country, Kano state in the northwest region of Nigeria is identified as the highest contributor of drug use and abuse rate based on the number of seizures, arrests of addicts and convictions of arrested dealers (Ogene, 2013; Adekunle, 2014) while Benue State with a total of 148 arrests comprising 133 men and15 women and 1,271.529kg of cannabis seized in the last one year (Emmanuel, 2015) is next in the ranking. Absolutely, there is no state in Nigeria without drug-related-problem as the issue of ‘illicit drug use has been linked with a number of social problems such as robbery, violence and youth restiveness that currently ravage the Nigerian society (Lawal, 2012).

Many studies (Onwukwe et al., 2002; Ernst et al., 2007; Goar et al., 2012; Montazerifar et al., 2013; Dolan et al., 2015; Adeyemo et al., 2016; WHO, 2017) have examined the phenomenon of drug use, abuse and the consequences in many societies. The WDR (2014) for instance, estimates that globally almost a quarter of a billion people between the ages of 15 and 64 years used an illicit drug in 2013. Similarly, in the past three years, the rate has remained stable as statistics show that drug-use disorders or drug dependence, problem drug use seems to exceed some 27 million people (WDR, 2014). At least one out of every ten persons is dependent on one form of drug or another; especially the socially acceptable drugs also known as gateway drugs. As indicated by Aida (2015) the lifetime prevalence of illicit drugs in Japan is only 2.9 percent, which is significantly lower than the rates in other countries, which are 47.1 percent in the United States, 45.2 percent in Canada, 36.8 percent in the United Kingdom, and 23.7 percent in Germany. In Nigeria majority of the youths ignorantly depend on one form of drug or the other (such as tobacco, Indian hemp, cocaine, morphine, heroine, alcohol, ephedrine, madras, caffeine, glue, barbiturates and amphetamines) for their various daily activities (Oshikoya and Alli, 2006) in Adeyemo et al. (2016). An earlier study by Johnbell and Fastborn (2009) cited by Lawal (2012) has found that the probability of use of drugs increased with age, female gender, living in an urban area, and use of many other drugs.

Drug use is a developmental, multi-causal process influenced by the interplay of many risk and protective factors from different developmental contexts (WDR, 2014). However, the improper use of prescribed drugs or medications is increasingly an issue of global concern (Hertz and Knight, 2006) and it constitutes an aspect of the phenomenon of drug use that is harmful to the users. Studies have linked the effect of drug use with psychiatric disorders in young (adolescent) boys and girls and even in the adults. It has been argued that drug misuse contributes to the physical, social and psychological harm on the adolescent drug users. It weakens the immune system of the users and abusers and making them to be highly susceptible to many types of infections. Drug use and intoxication increases the likelihood of unprotected oral sex and anal sex and less use of condom (Onwukwe et al., 2002). Besides, the growing rate of drug use by adolescent boys and girls in the country correlate positively with the phenomenon of cultism which presently is a characteristic feature of the Nigerian nation. According to Nakamura (2016) drug (use and) abuse affects not only the (users and) abusers themselves, but also those who are with them, such as families and spouses, in a serious manner, and consequently the productive activities of the whole society. However, it is important to note that for the adolescent girls and unmarried women, drugs used order than for the treatment of sickness or illness and for psychoactive purposes such as motivating stamina to withstand stressful sex and or to cushion the effects of infections, are meant to suppress conception or terminate pregnancy that is unwanted. Unfortunately, in many literature, the effect of drug use on termination of pregnancies whether unwanted or unexpected has not been sufficiently highlighted. Regrettably also, the phenomenon of drug use by young and unmarried women has not been provided for in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which lay the template for development in the country despite the fact that drug use has a strong negative impact on mortality levels and overall development of Akwa Ibom State and Nigeria as a whole.

Many studies show that drug use contributes to the death of the users. Salami (2015) the Population Reference Population Reference Bureau (2013); Abasiekong (1997) and many others have identified unsafe abortion as one of the main causes of maternal mortality. Maternal mortality as defined by Weeks (2008) is the death of a woman (could be a young girl) in pregnancy, child birth and 42 days afterward. Unsafe abortion is caused by several factors including indiscriminate use of drug and abuse. According to WHO (2017) there are globally an estimated 40-50 million abortions every year, and approximately 125,000 abortions per day. The African continent accounts for an estimated 8.3 million induced abortions each year and at least 9 percent of maternal deaths (16,000) annually due to unsafe abortion (Singh et al., 2014). In Nigeria maternal mortality rate is still as high as 570 per 100,000 live births due to the prevalence of unsafe abortions (Ifijeh, 2016). Comparatively, while Africa experiences 37,800 drug-related deaths, North America and Asia account for 43,000 and 81,100 cases respectively. These revealing facts become frightening and constituted the reason for conducting this study.

2. METHOD

2.1. Design

The study adopted the survey research design. This design was considered adequate because it facilitated easy exploration of the six local government areas where data were collected for the study. Similarly, because the survey method has the advantage of being flexible to varieties of data collection technique, it could help the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data for the study.

2.2. Study Sites

The study was concentrated in Uyo, Etinan, Abak, Ikot Ekpene, Oron and Mbo Local Government Areas. Akwa Ibom State has three Senatorial Districts like other states in the country but with 31 Local Government Areas. By historical explanation, there are also three major dialect groups, namely, Ibibio, Annang and Oron. Similarly, by geographical location and political arraignments, the major dialect groups are located respectively in the Akwa Ibom North East, Akwa Ibom North West, and Akwa Ibom South Senatorial Districts with the exception of the Ibibio that spills into both Akwa Ibom North West, and Akwa Ibom South Senatorial Districts. However, two local government areas were selected from each Senatorial District. That is, Uyo and Etinan local government areas from Akwa Ibom North East, Abak and Ikot Ekpene Local Government Areas from Akwa Ibom North West while Oron and Mbo from Akwa Ibom South Senatorial District.

2.3. Rationale for the Choice of the Study Sites

Two important factors were considered in selecting the six areas for the study. The factors included the concentration of the target population and proximity factor. Uyo has historically been the hub of businesses, transportation and politics of Akwa Ibom State and people (Attah and Akpan, 2007). Government institutions and most businesses or investments exist in Uyo and continue to influence the concentration of people in the area. This also attracts people with different intentions, attitudes and behaviour to the area, most of who are involved in harmful drugs. Apart from housing institutions that also attract large population of people, Etinan, Abak, Ikot Ekpene has closed proximity to Uyo. In Oron, there are also concentrations of public and private institutions that pulled a large number of young girls and unmarried women who desire jobs and have other needs in the area. Oron Local Government Area has a close proximity with Mbo, and Mbo (located in the coastline area and dividing Nigeria boundary with some other African countries) serves as a major outlet for drug smugglers and commercial sex workers and hawkers. On the reason for including the young girls in the study, many studies (Adeyemo et al., 2016) have indicated that drug and substance used and abuse is common among Nigerian youths and adolescent and that the health of young people is a key factor in the promotion and preservation of the health of the population as a whole because it determines the overall level of population health in the short term (Tsvetkova and Antonova, 2013) cited in Adeyemo et al. (2016). Apart from this, adolescents everywhere in the world prefer an autonomous and independent life that is free from adult control, there by engaging in various delinquent acts such as drug abuse, rape, robbery, cultism and vandalism that are dangerous to the home, community, school and the nation (Fareo, 2012). The adolescent disposition and peer influence lure most into orgy (see Grunbaum, Kann, Kinchen, et. al, 2002) in Goar et al. (2012).

2.4. Participants

The participants were drawn from two groups: young girls between the ages of 15-29 years and unmarried women in the age cohort of 30-49 years. In the first group, 197 participants or respondents were selected while in the second group, 103 participants were selected, all using the multistage probability sampling technique. The young girls were identified in the schools, at the shops where the classified drugs are normally purchased, in the homes of TBAs, at the clinics, hospitals and at the VVF Center, located at Mbribit Itam, Itu local government area. Similarly, the unmarried women were identified at the aforementioned places except the schools. The researcher worked with three assistants who did much of the interviewing and also distributed and retrieved the questionnaire from the respondents. Characteristically, the study participants comprised 84 (42.6%) girls in the age group of 15-19 years and 61 (31.0%) in the age group of 25-29 years. Among the unmarried women, 45 (43.7%) were aged 35-39 years whereas 39 (37.8%) were in the age group of 30-34 years, and only eight (7.8%) belonged to group of persons aged 40-44 years see Table 2.   

2.5. Instruments and Procedure

The questionnaire and interview were the main instruments used in this study. Both instruments contained similar questions. The questionnaire consisted of five sections: background characteristics of the respondents, drug use, type of drug ever use, number of times used, and reasons for drug use. Every section comprised both closed and open-ended questions. The interview schedule was used among those respondents who offered to provide the needed information through interaction with the researcher or the assistant researchers. However, the reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed at 0.79 percent coefficient using a test-retest-process.

3. DATA ANALYSIS

The data collected in the study were presented in frequency tables and analyzed using multiple linear regression analysis. Analysis was done with the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), IBM SPSS statistics 20 version.

3.1. Conceptual Clarification

Drug is a consumable item for young and old, and male and female who have needs for it. This study operationally classified drugs into three groups: drugs taken against sickness or for health (medicinal drugs), hard drugs taken by people of exceptional character and conduct (recreational or psychoactive drugs), and drugs used for abortion or termination of pregnancy. The last category of drugs was focused on in the study. These include as modern drugs such as mifepristone (mifeprex) otherwise called RU-486, misoprostol (cytotec), methotrexate, postino tabs, menstrogen tabs, miscoclear, guien, oxytein, ampiclox, A-P Fort, and black and white. On the contrary, the commonly used traditional drugs include ginger, salt, local gin (ufopfop), bark of trees, roots and herbs, pepper, andrews, and teem soda, etc.

3.2. Model Specification

The model is derived from the equation yi=β0+ βixi1+ βi2xi2+…+βp-1xip-1+ei.  It was designed separately for the young girls and for the unmarried women, thus, yi=β0+βi1mdi1+βi2tdi2+βi3edi3+βi4rei4+ei
Where:

y - ever use of drug to terminate pregnancy.
md - modern drug.
td - traditional drug.
ed - educational level.
re - reasons for use of drug.

4. RESULTS

Table 4 shows the distribution of the young girls (respondents) by known types of modern and traditional drugs that could be used to abort a pregnancy. As indicated in the table, only 60 of the sampled respondents admitted knowledge of modern drugs: ampiclox 29 (48.3%), miscoclear 18 (30.0%), misoprostol 6 (10.0%), postino Table 5 (8.3%) and one (1.7%) each for oxytein and A-p fort. The types of drugs that are known by majority of the young girls are the traditional drugs. Every respondent accepted having fair knowledge of the traditional drugs indicated in the questionnaire and or mentioned during the interview, but specifically, 7 (5.1%) respondents mentioned bark of trees while 8 (5.8%) others emphasized a substance such as kerosene.  A total of 27 (19.7%) respondents claimed adequate knowledge of ginger as an active abortion drug, 24 (17.5%) said teem soda while 22 (16.1%) mentioned salt. Andrews and roots/herbs were indicated by 17 (12.4%) respondents respectively.

Table 5 shows the number of times that the young girls (respondents) have ever used abortion drugs. The data show that 14 (7.1%) respondents never abort pregnancy and so have not used any drug. A larger number of the respondents, 65 (33.0%) have actually used drug once. While a total of 34 (17.3%) of the respondents have used abortion drugs twice, 47 (23. 8%) said they have ever used abortion drugs thrice. The table indicates that only five (2.5%) respondents that admitted using the drugs for different abortion drugs but for more than five times while 11 (5.6%) others have used drugs for five times now.
Table 6 presents data on the known modern and traditional drugs attested to by the respondents (unmarried women) that could be used to abort pregnancy. The data show that most of the respondents, 22 (21.4%) and 20 (19.4%) claimed knowledge of guien and ampiclox, respectively. A total of 16 (15.6%) respondents said they have knowledge of miscoclear, another 14 (13.6%) respondents claimed the new postino tablet while 10 (9.75%) others identified menstrogen tablet. The least number of respondents, 3 (2.9%) said they knew of A-p fort. However, all the respondents admitted having adequate knowledge of all types of traditional drugs that could be used to terminate pregnancy.

Table 7 indicates the number of times that the unmarried women have ever used drugs to terminate unwanted or unexpected pregnancy. The table shows that out of 103 respondents selected in the study, only two (1.9%) denied ever using drugs to abort a pregnancy. A total of 18 (17.5%) women have according to data in the table abort pregnancy only once while 12 (11.6%) others admitted that they have used drugs more than five times to abort unexpected pregnancies. According to data in the table, 25 (24.3%) respondents have terminated five pregnancies with drugs because of such coming unexpected. Incidentally, 22 (21.4%) and 13 (12.6%) respondents have accepted using aborting unwanted pregnancies for two times and four times, respectively using drugs.

Table 8 provides information on the reasons why the respondents in the two groups used drugs to terminate pregnancy instead of going to the hospital.  Data presented in the table show that only three (1.1%) respondents considered avoidance of shame as the main reason for secretly applying drugs unwanted pregnancy. Majority of the respondents, 87 (30.6%) claimed that it was the fear of how their parents/guardian would react that pushed them into using drugs instead of exposing themselves in the hospital. The same applied to those respondents who either lived their foster father, master or mistress, elder brother or sister. The table shows that 47 (16.5%) respondents decided to use drugs to terminate their unwanted pregnancies when their spouse or friend promised no responsibility for the pregnancy whereas 41 (14.4%) respondents claimed because they lacked money to vote hospital bill, they resorted to use drugs. In terms of the preferred drug by the respondents for terminating unwanted and unexpected pregnancy, among the young girls who indicated that they have at one time or the other use drug to abort a pregnancy, 51 (27.9%) preferred modern drugs while 132 (72.1%) said they preferred the traditional drugs. Conversely, 88 (87.1%) of the unmarried women accepted modern drugs and the hospital because of their past experiences and safety reasons whereas only 13 (12.9%) still preferred the traditional drugs Table 9.

Table 10 indicates information on the side effects of continuous use of drugs to terminate pregnancy. Although all the respondents argued that aborting or terminating pregnancy repeatedly with drugs caused every type of effect listed in the table, 85 (28.3%) respondents particularly mentioned damaged of womb of the users. A total of 98 (32.7%) of the respondents said it normally caused severe pains, while 71 (23.7%) others said that in addition to other problems, the practice leads to rampant menstrual flow which consequently altered cycle of the victim. As indicated in the table, 20 (6.7%) of the respondents and another 26 (8.6%) respectively argued that the rampant use of drugs to terminate pregnancy normally caused blackish colour of blood flow and could equally result in the death of the victims.

4.1. Data Presentation

**= young girls; no asterisks = unmarried women.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

Source: Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

The data Table 11 explain the effect of the measured variables on the termination of pregnancy with drugs. For the young girls, the termination of pregnancy decreased with a corresponding decrease in the use modern drugs only, that is, with b coefficient = -.62 and t-value = -15.2, and even in combination with traditional drugs, the coefficients (negative) were significant at p<.000 and p<.001, respectively. With the effect of educational level, the three variables constituted significant effects on the termination of pregnancy with drugs irrespective of the type. As shown in the table, the impact of modern drug, traditional drug and level of education when combined, suppressed the effect of any reason the young girls may have for using drugs to abort unexpected pregnancy. The reasons indicated by the young girls showed p>.55, highly insignificant for explaining their attitude toward the use of drugs to terminate unexpected pregnancy. Similarly, among the unmarried women, modern drug when combined with educational level could not explain the women preference of drugs to abort unwanted pregnancy.

Source Ben’s fieldwork, 2017.

This may be due to errors in the reported data as the result does not correspond with the information represented by the data in Table 6. The level of significance measured at 95% confidence level, one tail test was p>.817 in a single measure of the effect of modern drug and p>.962 when the test involved a combination of the effect of modern drug and that of educational level. In the combined effects of modern drug, education level and reasons for using drugs against unwanted pregnancy, the results were all significant, p<.011; p<.045 and p<.002, respectively. The effect of traditional drugs could not be measured because all the respondents claimed knowledge but were not currently using the drugs some reasons they did not disclose in the questionnaire or during the interview.

5. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

The study evaluated the phenomenon of drug use to terminate unwanted or unexpected pregnancy among young girls and unmarried women in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Findings of this study correspond largely with the submissions of many studies in different places. For instance, the study found that drug use and even abuse is severe in Nigeria as reported in other countries such as those in North America, East and South East Asia (WDR, 2014). All types of drugs including those that are used for termination of unwanted pregnancy are sold and bought everywhere in kiosks or bars, in the patent medicine shops, and pharmacies in the study area. The use of drugs to terminate pregnancy is risky; normally causes damage of womb, excessive bleeding, and death, etc; consistent with Sambo (2008) position that  chronic use of substances can cause serious, sometimes irreversible damage to adolescent’s physical and psychological development. However, despite the awareness of this fact, the prevalence of modern contraception and availability of modern facilities that can effect safe abortion, the study found that a large number of the respondents particularly the young girls still use drug to terminate unexpected or unwanted pregnancy. This unguarded attitude concerning drug use has been observed by McMaster and Keshav (1994) who investigated the perceptions of normal alcohol use by Zimbabwean high school students. To McMaster and Keshav (1994) adolescents and youth normally underrate the harmful effects of unhealthy life styles.

The study also observed that the destruction of conception (abortion) in the study population is considered unethical, satanic, and culturally and religiously unacceptable even when it is meant to save a woman’s life in the case of a hospital, although argued on the contrary by Henshaw et al. (1998). Similarly, the procedures used by most people to terminate unwanted pregnancy in the study area are clandestine, and many are carried out under unsafe conditions and by untrained providers. In short, many of the abortion cases executed with drugs and by untrained persons result in serious problems such as severe pains, 98 (32.7%), damage womb, 85 (28.3%) and death, 26 (8.6%) as observed in the study.

The regression results showed a significant effect of modern drug on the termination of undesired pregnancy at p<.000; in the combination of modern drug with traditional drug and educational level, the results also showed significant at p<.000 for modern drug, p<.019 and p<.010 for level of education. Education generally is a factor that plays a determining role in a person’s attitude. In terms of drug use, it helps to creates awareness and smoothen knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of drug use. However, several literatures and meta-analyses of school-based drug prevention programs have concluded that most are ineffective in preventing drug use (see Battjes 1985; Bangert-Drowns 1988; Botvin 1990; Bruvold and Rundall 1988; Ennett et al. 1994; Hansen 1990; Ringwalt et al 1994; Tobler 1986) in Rosenbaum and Hanson (1998). Where all the measured variables were combined to examine their effects on the termination of unwanted pregnancy, the reason for drug use showed an insignificant effect (p>.553). A study amongst secondary school students in Kenya by Maithya (2009) has confirmed that the common reasons for drug abuse include curiosity and acceptance by friends (peer pressure). Similarly, a study by Kiiru (2004) indicates that peer pressure was responsible for youths’ consumption of drugs for the purpose of stimulating appetite for food. All of these appear consistent with the finding of this study that pressure from peers, and mother and sister influence the respondents’ attitude to drug use, even though the result varied for the unmarried women particularly concerning modern drug when combined with educational level.

Although drug use and abuse is a common feature of all societies as observed in many studies (Henshaw et al., 1998; Onwukwe et al., 2002; Goar et al., 2012; Montazerifar et al., 2013; Adeyemo et al., 2016) the level or rate (of drug use and abuse) as in Japan (Henshaw et al., 1998) decreases with advancement in educational level. Corresponding with this argument, the regression coefficient showed p<.010 & p<.045, implying that educational level has significant effect on the desire or otherwise to use drug to terminate unwanted pregnancy. For the young girls, the reasons for aborting pregnancy with drugs was not a strong determinant (p>.553) as against p<.002 for the unmarried women. This finding varies significantly from a study report by Foo et al. (2012) which holds in parts that ‘family factors (such as family economic standing) and peer influence played an important role in an individual’s drug abuse habits; and that other factors such as curiosity, tension release and betrayal of spouse also contributed to participant’s drug abuse.

6. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

The findings of this study which are consistent with many previous studies have indicated that much is still left to be done on the phenomenon of hard drug, its use and abuse. It is important to argue that the achievement of a reduction in the rates of indiscriminate use of drugs for purposes of health (medicinal drugs) and by people of exceptional character and conduct (recreational or psychoactive drugs) as earlier mentioned should not divert the attentions of the government, National Drug Law Enforcement Agency and other relevant agencies from the issue of abortion or termination of pregnancies using drugs.  Much as sufficient evidence continue to hold that unsafe abortion reduces women’s productivity, increases the economic burden on poor families, and constitutes additional pressure on the already struggling public health systems, and that ‘drugs alter the normal biological and psychological functioning of the body, especially the central nervous system (Melis et al., 2005) in Adeyemo et al. (2016) it is imperative that the suggestions made in this study be given adequate attention.

However, it is suggested that government should intensify the campaign on sexual education among the young girls and unmarried women who are most vulnerable to drug use, termination of pregnancy with drug and VVF diseases to help check the menace. There should also be effective campaign and public enlightenment of on the appropriate manner of handling issues concerning unexpected pregnancies in young girls especially those that are still attending schools. In the schools, subject or course that focuses on drug use and abuse should be introduced. In addition, there should counseling and creation of awareness on the ills of drug use and abuse on the individuals, families and the society. Government should incorporate the patent medicine dealers into the ‘drug use and abuse control or prevention project’ with appropriate legislation on the specified types of drugs that patent medicine shops should distribute since majority of the population depend on these shops for their health care needs. With this, instead of providing nocturnal and risky services to the people, they would be identified; licensed, monitored and punished if contravened the law. Sex education has to a certain extent added pains to the injury by exposing the young ones to knowledge of sex and contraceptives, thereby endearing on some to make trials. Therefore, the contents of sex education should be restructured.

REFERENCES

Abasiekong, E.M., 1997. Childbirth beliefs, attitudes and practices of Ibibio women and their families in South East Nigeria. Unpublished Study Reports Submitted to the International Development Research Centre, University of New Foundland, Canada.

Adekunle, E., 2014. Kano tops drug abuse chart in Nigeria. Daily Vanguard Newspaper (Nigeria). Available from https://www.vanguardngr.com/2014/01/kano-tops-drug-abuse-chart-nigeria-ndlea/ [Accessed 15/09/17].

Adeyemo, F.O., B. Ohaeri, P.U. Okpala and O. Oghale, 2016. Prevalence of drug abuse amongst university students in Benin City, Nigeria. Public Health Research, 6(2): 31-37.

Aida, Y., 2015. Special guidance (guidance on withdrawal from drug dependency) provided in the Kawagoe Juvenile Prison: Comprehensive initiative for prevention of repeated crimes. Houritsu no Hiroba, August 2015. pp: 20-28.

Attah, V.I. and O.E. Akpan, 2007. Before our eyes: A compendium of the transformation of Uyo by the Attah administration: 1999-2007. Diamond Ville, Uyo. pp: 128.

Dolan, K., B. Moazen, A. Noori, S. Rahimzadeh, F. Farzadfar and F. Hariga, 2015. People who inject drugs in prison: HIV prevalence, transmission and prevention. International Journal of Drug Policy, 26: S12-S15.Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2014.10.012.

Emmanuel, U., 2015. NDLEA arrests 148 suspects in one year. Available at The Nation Newspaper (Nigeria). Available from https://Thenationonlineng.Net/Ndlea-Arrests-148-Suspects-In-One [Accessed 05/09/2017].

Ernst, D., W.R. Miller and S. Rollnick, 2007. Treating substance abuse in primary care: A demonstration project. International Journal of Integrated Care, 7(4): 1-8.Available at: https://doi.org/10.5334/ijic.213.

Fareo, D.O., 2012. Drug abuse among Nigerian adolescents strategies for counselling. The Journal of International Social Research, 5(20): 342-347.

Foo, Y.-C., C.-L. Tam and T.-H. Lee, 2012. Family factors and peer influence in drug abuse: A study in rehabilitation centre. International Journal of Collaborative Research on Internal Medicine & Public Health, 4(3): 190-201.

Goar, S.G., M.D. Audu, M.T. Agbir and E. Dochalson, 2012. Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of alcohol use disorders among HIV patients. In Isidore S. Obot, Akanidomo J. Ibanga and Andrew Zamani (2012). Substance abuse and HIV/AIDS in Africa. Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA). Proceedings of the Ninth Biennial International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Society in Africa. pp: 21-28.

Henshaw, S.K., S. Singh, B.A. Oye-Adeniran, I.F. Adewole, N. Iwere and Y.P. Cuca, 1998. The incidence of induced abortion in Nigeria. International Family Planning Perspectives, 24(4): 156-164.Available at: https://doi.org/10.2307/2991973.

Hertz, J.A. and J.R. Knight, 2006. Prescription drug misuse: A growing national problem. Adolescent Medicine Clinics, 17(3): 751-769.

Ifijeh, M., 2016. Unsafe abortion and maternal deaths in Nigeria. In Thisday Newspaper (Nigeria). Available from https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2017/09/15/thursday-14th-september-2017 [Accessed 15/09/17].

Kalau, N., 2015. Functions of NDLEA in Nigeria. NDLEA Newsletter (Nigeria). Available from https://www.ndlea.gov.ng/news- and-events/ [Accessed 05/09/2017].

Kiiru, D., 2004. Youth in peril: Alcohol and drug abuse in Kenya. Nairobi: NACADA.

Lawal, A.M., 2012. Influence of gender, family structure, type of residential area and locus of control on illicit drug use. In Isidore S. Obot, Akanidomo J. Ibanga and Andrew Zamani (2012). Substance abuse and HIV/AIDS in Africa. Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA). Proceedings  of the ninth Biennial International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Society in Africa. pp: 109-116.

Maithya, R.W., 2009. Drug abuse in secondary schools in Kenya: Developing a programme for prevention and intervention. Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Africa.

McMaster, J. and C. Keshav, 1994. Perceptions of normal alcohol use held by Zimbabwean high school students. The Central African Journal of Medicine, 40(4): 88-94.

Montazerifar, F., M. Karajibani, K. Lashkaripour and M. Yousefi, 2013. Evaluation of serum adiponectin concentrations among drug abusers on methadone maintenance treatment. International  Journal of High Risk Behaviour Addiction, 2(3): 117–121.

Nakamura, S., 2016. Current situation of drug abuse and countermeasures in Japan. Sociology Study, 6(8): 539-551.Available at: https://doi.org/10.17265/2159-5526/2016.08.006.

Ogene, A., 2013. Drugs and poverty blight Northern Nigeria, Aljazeera. Available from http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/drug-poverty-blight-northern-nigeria201312984336715637.html [Accessed 05/09/2017].

Onwukwe, L.C., N.C. Uwaoma, A.U. Madukwe and V.C. Onwukwe, 2002. Alcohol use, gender and high risk sexual behavior among under graduates. In Isidore S. Obot, Akanidomo J. Ibanga and Andrew Zamani (2012). Substance abuse and HIV/AIDS in Africa. Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA). Proceedings of the Ninth Biennial International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Society in Africa. pp: 61-70.

Population Reference Bureau, 2013. Family planning worldwide: 2013 data sheet. Washington, DC: PRB. pp: 1-17.

Rosenbaum, D.P. and G.S. Hanson, 1998. Assessing the effects of school-based drug education: A six-year multi-level analysis of project drug abuse resistance education: A six-year multilevel analysis of project D.A.R.E. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 35(4): 381-412.  [Accessed 11/26/2017].Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022427898035004002.

Salami, M.O., 2015. Sex education and teenage pregnancy in the miger delta: Implications for secondary school biology curriculum in Nigeria. World Journal of Education, 5(3): 73-78.Available at: https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v5n3p73.

Sambo, S., 2008. Understanding guidance and counseling. Zaria: Ahamadu Bello University Press Limited.

Singh, S., J.E. Darroch and L.S. Ashford, 2014. Adding it up: The costs and benefits of investing in sexual and reproductive health. Adding it up: The costs and benefits of investing in sexual and reproductive health 2014. NewYork: Guttmacher Institute.

Weeks, J.R., 2008. Population: An introduction to concepts and issues (Eds.). Australia: Thomson Wadsworth.

WHO, 2017. Statistics of the world health organization in Thisday Newspaper (Nigeria). Available from https://www.thisdaylive.com/index.php/2017/09/15/thursday-14th-september-2017 [Accessed 15/09/17].

World Drugs Report, 2014. United nations office on drugs and crime, world drug report 2014. United Nations Publication, Sales No. E.14.XI.7.